Education and Development Linkages in South Asia (IV)
By V Santhakumar
Part IV Pakistan and Afghanistan
Pakistan
The situation in Pakistan is different from that of Bangladesh despite the historical connection between the two (as two parts of the same country until the 1970s.) The successive governments in Pakistan have not focussed adequately on the expansion of government schools.1This is despite the fact that the constitution of Pakistan mandates the provision of free and compulsory education to all children between the age of 5 and 16 years.2 The inadequacy of government schools reduces the access to, and increases the cost of, education.3 This obviously affect the poorer sections of the country. A large number of private schools with varying quality (and with minimal regulation) have sprung up, but these are costlier options.4 There are `low fee’ private schools but these are of poor quality with unqualified teachers. The number of Muslim religious schools has increased but its impact on the quality of education is uncertain.5 Though the problems of education are known, and a set of efforts have been taken after the 1970s, the goal of universal education is elusive in Pakistan. Though the gross enrolment rate in schools is about 70 percent but nearly half the share of children drop out of schools before class V (based on the data in 20176). Only one-third of the 50 percent who remain, pass the primary. It is noted that `the quest for universal education has been stymied by interconnected, often self-perpetuating factors, such as unprecedented population growth alongside increasing gender disparities, inadequate funding coupled with systemic corruption, diminished democratic aims in education and the increasing influence of religious zealotry.’7
The post-independent governments in Pakistan also provided financial support to those who wanted to get higher education, as in India. This was mainly because of the completion of school education by the elite sections in the country and their demand for higher education. But the country was not very successful in developing an expanded infrastructure for higher education, unlike India.8 Education development was more in response to the economic opportunities (facilitated by factors like Foreign Direct Investments in the economy), and not the other way round (Raza, 2017). Hence, the demand for education in Pakistan is driven by the nature of economic growth and the presence of poverty. It is obvious that those below the poverty line faced severe difficulties in accessing education.9
Though casteism was not a major issue in Pakistan, gender norms played an important role. One account shows that `thirty-two percent of primary school age girls are out of school in Pakistan, compared to 21 percent of boys’; `Only 13 percent of girls are still in school by ninth grade’.10 This is more severe in certain regions like those which are closer to Afghanistan.11 There is a higher level of disparity in terms of the enrolment of girls in schools between urban and rural areas. The primary school completion rate for girls in rural areas was three times lower than that for boys.12 Girls in urban areas have better access to education than their rural counterparts. This has implications for the education of the population as a whole since educated mothers are more likely to be concerned about the education of their next generation.13 The non-completion of schooling by girls works against the reduction of fertility and infant mortality rates, and hence, a significant improvement in human development.14
The traditional community norms in these regions which are also strengthened by the versions of Islam which got dominance there, over time, strengthened the norms against modern education for girls. Instead of a religious issue, it is more of a cultural issue. It may be more correct to say that the traditional values in these localities may have found certain rigid versions of Islam acceptable over time.15 Child marriage is also prevalent and there is a reluctance to encourage girls to take up paid employment (a situation similar to that in India).16
Though a number of countries have benefitted from higher levels of economic growth during the last three decades, this has not been the case with Pakistan.17 Agriculture continues to provide sustenance to more than one-third of the population18 and manufacturing accounts for less than 13 percent of the GDP.19 The nature of the economy in Pakistan is not very different from that of India, and in the case of both countries, economic growth is such that it could not create many jobs for people who complete school education. On the other hand, it is argued that the lower levels of human development (which reflects the under-achievements in education too) could be a barrier against the achievement of a higher growth of the economy of Pakistan.20
All of this created a situation in which the development equilibrium did not create a higher level of supply of, and the demand for, education.21 The lack of adequate opportunities in the manufacturing sector may have dampened the demand for school education by those youngsters who are less likely to opt for higher education.22 The issues of the economy (and the consequent fiscal problems) might have worked against increasing public investments in education. These investments have remained at about 2 percent of the GDP, but the smaller size of the economy, its slower growth, and the sizeable population may make this a lot more inadequate.23 There is an interesting argument that the expenditure on defence by Pakistan is nearly 3.3 percent of the GDP and is higher than comparable countries, and this has a bearing on its social expenditures.24 The ethnic-religious issues within Pakistan (and their repercussions in its relations with India and Afghanistan) could have played an important role in enhancing the military expenditure. All these have a bearing on the public investments and finally the access to, and quality of, education. For these reasons, the enrolment and completion of school education continue to be problematic in Pakistan.
Here is a country where the contextual factors worked against the development of both, economy and education. Hence, the gap between the elites, and the majority of people in terms of access to and quality of education continues to persist or widen. The possibility for the poorer sections to improve their living conditions through education and the use of economic opportunities which can be offered by globalisation are somewhat limited in Pakistan.
Afghanistan
Modern education started in Afghanistan only in the 20th century.25 Until then, religious teaching was the most dominant. There was a small section of elites who received western education by the middle of the 20th century. However, the majority of people who lived in the rural areas and survived on farming were not much influenced by it.
Afghanistan had periodical ups and downs in terms of education. The period between 1901-21 was marked by several attempts to start modern schools, increase in enrolment including that of boys, strengthening teacher education and also encourage youngsters to go abroad for higher education.26 However, the conflict between the urban elites and feudal/religious elements in rural areas led to a slowing down of this expansion in 1929. A puritanical version of Islam that caught the attention of the religious people played an important role in the slowing down of education then. Then there were some positive developments by the middle of the 20th century. A number of schools were started for girls. The budget for education increased. These could lead to about 6 percent enrolment in primary education.
The global situation at the time encouraged the Afghan rulers to be closer to the Soviet Union. This collaboration led to the flow of Afghan students for training in military and non-military skills in Soviet provinces. All these and soviet influence led to an expansion of education. The enrolment in schools in the early 1960s almost doubled in comparison with the situation in 1950. This phase of expansion continued till late the 1970s. Then the situation was one where a large number of high school graduates could not be accommodated in the limited number of higher education facilities. The regime which came to exist in 1978 expanded schooling in the rural areas too. However, it was short-lived, and a coup in 1979 gradually led to the occupation of Russian forces.
The governments aided by Russian forces also expanded education, though there were accusations of ideological indoctrination. There was an emphasis on literacy and adult education also during this period. The enrolment in higher education also increased notably around this time. However, the expansion of education into rural areas was limited mainly because of the limited reach of the central government in these areas.27 These areas also witnessed conflicts between community/religious forces (Taliban) and the central government. However, religious schools and teaching were not disturbed during this period.
The withdrawal of Russian support led to the weakening of the education system. The Taliban regime (ruled 1996-2001) banned the education of women and closed all girls’ schools except the Kabul Medical Faculty.28 Though foreign assistance increased from Saudi Arabia, that was used primarily in religious schools. All these factors led to the demise of modern education during the Taliban regime. There was an attempt to expand the coverage of schooling when the Taliban was ousted, and a democratically elected government came to power with the support of the USA and NATO forces.29 In terms of secondary school enrolment, Afghanistan is ahead of Pakistan currently (that is, before the withdrawal of the US forces). Though there was some progress, some of the challenges continued. For example, even after 16 years of US Occupation, two-thirds of girls could not go to school.30 Despite this, the situation was much better than that under the Taliban rule.31 One can expect a regression again in terms of education, with a possible rise of the Taliban32 after the withdrawal of US forces.
The religious aversion to the (modern) education of girls is severe in Afghanistan and in that sense, it may be sharing the features of Pakistan, especially its western provinces. Child marriage is common, and estimates show that about 17 percent of girls get married before their 15th birthday.33 Geographical barriers and mountainous areas also reduce access to schools. The historical under-achievements in education also reflects in the quality of teachers. A majority of the teachers do not have appropriate qualifications.
The key insights about the education development in Afghanistan would include that a majority of the rural people are not keen to provide modern education to their children, especially, girls. Their livelihood activities also do not encourage them to demand modern education. Moreover, these community norms which are not conducive for modern education are strengthened by religious beliefs. Though eclectic versions of Islam were prevalent there in the past, the Wahhabi version that gained momentum even in the 1920s strengthens the aversion of sections of Afghani people towards modern education. However, modern education started in urban areas in the 20th century as an elite project. Those elite sections which ruled Afghanistan at different points and got higher levels of education attempted to spread it to the masses. A top-down approach was tried out to expand the coverage of education when the government of Afghanistan was supported by the Soviet Union. However, the expansion was a slow and tedious process and contested by the religious, feudal and communitarian forces of the rural areas. These forces got the support of international actors (like Saudi Arabia and the USA) as part of the Cold War, which led to their capture of power and a severe regression in education. Though the US occupation enabled the revival of education, its future (especially that for girls) is uncertain due to the withdrawal of US forces.
In essence, the domestic environment (both social and economic) in Afghanistan was not one for the expansion of modern education. International interventions were not very helpful in bringing about sustainable and positive changes in this respect. This may have led to the persistence of the under-achievements in education and economic development in the country.
AUTHOR
V Santhakumar, Professor, Azim Premji University, Bangalore
This is Part 4 of 6 parts that will be published over the coming weeks.
Read Part I
Read Part II
Read Part III
Read Part V
Read Part VI
Featured photo by Atif Gulzar on FREEIMAGES
